PART-I
Introduction
Vietnam gained formal independence in 1945, before India, but it took another three decades of fighting before the Republic of Vietnam was formed.
Nationalism in Indo-China developed in a colonial context. The knitting together of a modern Vietnamese nation that brought the different communities together was in part the result of colonisation but, as importantly, it was shaped by the struggle against colonial domination.
Emerging from the shadow of china
Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Many different groups of people living in this area under the shadow of the powerful empire of China. Even when an independent country was established in what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers continued to maintain the Chinese system of government as well as Chinese culture.
Colonial Domination of Resistance
(i) The colonisation of Vietnam by the French brought the people of the country into conflict with the colonisers in all areas of life. The most visible form of French control was military and economic domination but the French also built a system that tried to reshape the culture of the Vietnamese.
(ii) Nationalism in Vietnam emerged through the efforts of different sections of society to fight against the French and all they represented.
(iii) French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880’s they had established a firm grip over the northern region. After the Franco-Chinese war the French asumed control of Tonkin and Anaam and in 1887, French Indo-China was formed.
(iv) In the following decades the French sought to consolidate their position, and people in Vietnam began reflecting on the nature of the loss that Vietnam was suffering. Nationalist resistance developed out of this reflection.
Why the French thought Colonies Necessary?
(i) Colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources and other essential goods.
(ii) The purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits. If the economy was developed and the standard of living of the people improved, they would buy more goods. The market would consequently expand, leading to better profits for French business.
Development of colonies
(i) The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation. The vast system of irrigation works-canals and earthwards-built mainly with forced labour, increased rice production and allowed the export of rice to the international market.
(ii) French started infrastructure projects to help transport goods for trade, move military garrisons and control the entireregion. Construction of a trans-Indo-China rail network that would link the northern and southern parts of Vietnam and China was begun.
(iii) By the 1920s, to ensure higher levels of profit for their businesses, French business interests were pressurising the government in Vietnam to develop the infrastructure further.
(iv) Paul Bernard suggested that there were several barriers to economic growth in Vietnam : high population levels, low agricultural productivity and extensive indebtedness amongst the peasants.
(v) To reduce rural poverty and increase agriculture productivity it was necessary to carry out land reforms as the Japanese had done in the 1890s.
(vi) The colonial economy in Vietnam was, however, primarily based on rice cultivation and rubber plantations owned by the French and a small Vietnamese elite. Rail and port facilities were set up to service this sector. Indentured Vietnamese labour was widely used in the rubber plantations. The French did little to industrialise the economy. In the rural areas landlordism spread & the standard of living declined.
The dilemma of colonial education
- French colonisation was not based only on economic exploitation. It was also driven by the idea of a ‘civilising mission’.
- The French claimed that they were bringing modern civilisation to the Vietnamese. They took for granted that Europe had developed the most advanced civilisation. So it became the duty of the Europeans to introduce these modernities to the colony even if this meant destroying local cultures, religions and traditions, because these were seen as outdated and prevented modern development.
- The French needed an educated local labour force but they feared that education might create problems. Once educated, the Vietnamese may begin to question colonial domination. Moreover, French citizens living in Vietnam (called colons) began fearing that they might lose their jobs-as teachers, shopkeepers, policemen- to the educated Vietnamese. So they opposed policies that would give the Vietnamese full access to French education.
Talking Modern
(i) The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere of education: the elite in Vietnam was powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. To consolidate their power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence. So they systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the Vietnamese.
(ii) Some policy makers emphasised the need to use the French language as the medium of instruction. By learning the language, they felt, the Vietnamese would be introduced to the culture and civilisation of France. This would help create an ‘Asiatic France solidly tied to European France’. The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments and ideals, see the superiority of French culture, and work for the French.
(iii) Others were opposed to French being the only medium of instruction. They suggested that Vietnamese be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes. The few who learnt French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship.
(iv) The Vietnamese elite-comprising a small fraction of the population-could enroll in the schools, and only a few among those admitted ultimately passed the school-level examination. This was largely because of a deliberate policy of failing students, particularly in the final year, so that they could not qualify for the better-paid jobs. Usually as many as two third of the students failed. In 1925, in a population of 17 million, there were less than 400 who passed the examination.
(v) School textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule. The Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward, capable of manual labour but not of intellectual reflection; they could work in the fields but not rule themselves; they were ‘skilled copyists’ but not creative. School children were told that only French rule could ensure peace in Vietnam.
Looking Modern
(i) The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a western-style education. This education included classes in science, hygiene and French (these classes were held in the evening and had to be paid for separately).
(ii) The school’s approach to what it means to be ‘modern’ is a good example of the thinking prevalent at that time. It was notenough to learn science and Western ideas: to be modern the Vietnam had to also look modern. The school encouraged the adoption of Western styles such as having a short haircut. For the Vietnamese this meant a major break with their own identity since they traditionally kept long hair.
Resistance in Schools
(i) As the numbers of Vietnamese teachers increased in the lower classes, it became difficult to control what was actually taught. While teaching, Vietnamese teachers quietly modified the text and criticised what was stated.
(ii) Incident of Saigon native Girls School : In 1926 a major protest erupted in the Saigon Native Girls School. A Vietnamese girl sitting in one of the front seats was asked to move to the back of the class and allow a local French student to occupy the front bench. She refused. The principal, also a colon (French people in the colonies), expelled her. When angry students protested, they too were expelled, leading to a further spread of open protests. Seeing the situation getting out of control, the government forced the school to take the student back.
(iii) Students fought against the colonial government’s efforts to prevent the Vietnamese from qualifying for white-collar jobs. They were inspired by patriotic feelings and the conviction that it was the duty of the educated to fight for the benefit of society. This brought them into conflict with the French as well as the traditional elite, since both saw their positions threatened.
(iv) By the 1920s, students were forming various political parties, such as the Party of Young Annan, and publishing nationalist journals such as the Annanese Student.
(v) The French sought to strengthen their rule in Vietnam through the control of education. They tried to change the values, norms and perceptions of the people, to make them believe in the superiority of French civilisation and the inferiority of the Vietnamese. Vietnamese intellectuals, on the other hand, feared that Vietnam was losing not just control over its territory but its very identity: its own culture and customs were being devalued and the people were developing a master-slave mentality. The battle against French colonial education became part of the largest battle against colonialism and for independence.
Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance
Plague Strikes Hanoi
(i) When the French set about creating a modern Vietnam, they decided to rebuild Hanoi. The latest ideas about architecture and modern engineering skills were employed to build a new and ‘modern’ city.
(ii) In 1903, the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague. In many colonial countries, measures to control the spread of disease created serious social conflicts.
(iii) The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the ‘native quarter’ was not provided with any modern facilities. The refuse from the old city drained straight out into the river or, during heavy rains on floods, overflowed into the streets. Thus what was installed to create a hygienic environment in the French city became the cause of the plague. The large sewers also served as a great transport system, allowing the rats to move around the city without any problem. And rats began to enter the well-cared homes of the French through the sewage pipes.
(iv) To stem this invasion, a rat hunt was started in 1902. The French hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught.
(v) For the Vietnamese the rat hunt seemed to provide an early lesson in the success of collective bargaining. Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found that if they came together they could negotiate a higher bounty. They also discovered innovative ways to profit from this situation.
(vi) The bounty was paid when a tail was given as proof that a rat had been killed. So the rat-catchers took to just clipping the tails and releasing the rats, so that the process could be repeated, over and over again. Some people, in fact, began raising rats to earn a bounty.
(vii) Defeated by the resistance of the weak, the French were forced to scrap the bounty programme. None of this prevented the bubonic plague, which swept through the area in 1903 and in subsequent years. In a way, the rat menace marks the limits of French power and the contradictions in their ‘civilising mission’. And the actions of the rat-catchers tell us of the numerous small ways in which colonialism was fought in everyday life.
Part-II
Religion and Anti–colonialism
(i) Colonial domination was exercised by control over all areas of private and public life. The French occupied Vietnam militarily but they also sought to reshape social and cultural life.
(ii) Vietnam’s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices. Christianity, introduced by French missionaries, was intolerant of this mixture.
(iii) An early movement against French control and the spread of Christianity was the Scholars Revolt in 1868. This revolt was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power. They led a general uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousand Catholics were killed. The French crushed the movement but this uprising served to inspire other patriots to rise up against them.
(iv) The elite in Vietnam was educated in Chinese and shaped by a variety of syncretic traditions that combined Buddhism and local beliefs. There were many popular religions in Vietnam that were spread by people who claimed to have seen a vision of God. Some of these religious movements supported the French, but others inspired movement against colonial rule.
(v) One such movement was the Hoa Hao. It began in 1939 and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century.
(vi) The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal.
(vii) The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum. Interestingly, the doctor who had to prove him insane became his follower. The French authorities exiled him to Laos and sent many of his followers to concentration camps.
The vision of modernisation
(i) Intellectuals felt that Vietnamese tradition had to be strengthened to resist the domination of the West, while others felt that Vietnam had to learn from the West even while opposing foreign domination.
(ii) In the late nineteenth century, resistance to French domination was very often led by Confucian scholar-activists, who saw their world crumbling. Educated in the Confucian tradition, Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940) was one such nationalist. He became a major figure in the anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong De as the head.
(iii) Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929) in Yokohama in 1905. Phan’s most influential book, “The History of the Loss of Vietnam” was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao. The book focuses on two connected themes. The loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties with China-ties that bound the elites of the two countries within a shared culture. It is this double loss that Phan laments, a lament that was typical of performers from within the traditional elite.
(iv) Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926) was intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French with the help of the court. His desire was to establish a democratic republic. Profoundly influenced by the democratic ideals of the West, he did not want a wholesale rejection of the Western civilisation. He accepted the French revolutionary ideal of liberty but charged the French for not abiding by the ideal. He demanded that French set up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries.
Other ways of Becoming Modern : Japan and China
(i) In the first decade of the twentieth century a ‘go east movement’ became popular. In 1907-08 some 300 Vietnamese students went to Japan to acquire modern education. For many of them the primary objective was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty that had been deposed by the French.
(ii) These nationalists looked for foreign arms and help. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians. Japan had modernised itself and had resisted colonisation by the West. Besides, its victory over Russia in 1907 proved its military capabilities. Vietnamese students established a branch of the Restoration society in Tokyo but after 1908, the JapaneseMinistry of Interior affairs clamped down on them. Many, including Phan Boi Chu, were deported and forced to seek exile in China and Thailand.
(iii) Developments in China also inspired Vietnamese nationalists in 1911, the long established monarchy in China was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen, and a Republic was set up. Inspired by these developments, Vietnamese students organised the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam (Vietnam Quan Phuc Hoi). Now the nature of the anti French independence movement changed. The objective was no longer to set up a constitutional monarchy but a democratic republic.
The communist movement and vietnamese nationalism
(i) The Great Depression of the 1930s, had a profound impact on Vietnam. The price of rubber and rice fell, leading to rising rural debts, unemployment and rural uprisings, such as in the provinces of Nghe An and Ha Tinh. These provinces were among the poorest, had an old radical tradition, and have been called the ‘electrical fuses’ of Vietnam-when the system was under pressure they were the first to blow.
(ii) In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish the Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party, later renamed the Indo-Chinese Communist Party. He was inspired by the militant demonstrations of the European communist parties.
(iii) In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to control Southeast Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the Japanese as well as the French. The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which came to be known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman.
The New Republic of Vietnam
(i) The new republic faced a number of challenges. The French tried to regain control by using the emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet. Faced with the French offensive, the Vietminh members were forced to retreat to the hills. After eight years of fighting, the French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.
(ii) The Supreme French Commander of the French armies, General Henry Navarre had declared confidently in 1953 that they would soon be victorious. But on 7 May 1954, the Vietminh annihilated and captured more than 16,000 soldiers of the French Expeditionary Corps. The entire commanding staff, including a general, 16 colonels and 1,749 officers, were taken prisoners.
(iii) In the peace negotiations in Geneva that followed the French defeat, the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of the country, North and south were split: Ho Chi Minh and the communists took power in the north while Bao Dai’s regime was put in power in the south.
(iv) This division set in motion a series of events that turned Vietnam into a battlefield bringing death and destruction to its people as well as the environment.
(v) The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. His dictatorial rule came to be opposed by a broad opposition united under the banner of the National Liberation Front (NLF). With the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north, the NLF fought for the unification of the country. The US watched this alliance with fear. Worried about communists gaining power, it decide to intervene decisively, sending in troops and arms.
The Entry of the US into the War
(i) Form 1965 to 1972, over 3,403,100 US services personnel served in Vietnam (7,484 were women). Even though the US had advanced technology and good medical supplies, casualties were high. About 47,244 died in battle and 303,704 were wounded.
(ii) This phase of struggle with the US was brutal. Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks and backed by the most powerful bombers of the time – B52s. The wide spread attacks and use of chemical weapons – Napalm, Agent Orange, and phosphorous bombs – destroyed many villages and decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.
(iii) The effect of the war was felt within the US as well. Many of those sent to fight did not belong to the privileged elite butwere minorities and children of working – class families.
(iv) The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as well as criticising the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war, such as John Wayne’s “Green Berets (1968)”. John Ford Coppola’s “Apocalypse Now (1979)” reflected the moral confusion that the war had caused in the US.
(v) The war grew out of a fear among US policy – planners that the victory of the Ho Chi Minh government would start a domino effect – communist government would be established in other countries in the area. They underestimated the power of nationalism to move people to action, inspire them to sacrifice their home and family, live under horrific conditions, and fight for independence. They underestimated the power of a small country to fight the most technologically advanced country in the world.
The Ho Chi Minh Trail
(i) The story of the Ho Chi Minh Trail is one way of understanding the nature of the war that the Vietnamese fought against the US.
(ii) The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads, was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south. The trail was improved from the late 1950’s, and from 1967 about 20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month on this trail.
(iii) The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way. In some parts supplies were transported in trucks, but mostly they were carried by porters, who were mainly women.
(iv) Most of the trail was outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia with branch lines extending into South Vietnam. The US regularly bombed this trail trying to disrupt supplies, but efforts to destroy this mportant supply line by intensive bombing failed because they were rebuilt very quickly.
The nation and its heroes
Women as Rebels
(i) Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China, particularly among the lower classes, but they had only limited freedom to determine their future and played no role in public life.
(ii) Writers and political thinkers began idealising women who rebelled against social norms. This rebellion against social conventions marked the arrival of the new women in Vietnamese society.
Heroes of Past Times
(i) In 1913, the nationalist Phan Boi Chau wrote a play based on the lives of the Trung sisters who had fought against Chinese domination in 39-43 CE.
(ii) The actual reasons for the revolt are a matter of debate among scholars, but after Phan’s play the Trung sisters came to be idealised and glorified.
(iii) Other women rebels of the past were part of the popular nationalist lore. One of the most venerated was Trieu Au who lived in the third century. Orphaned in childhood, she lived with her brother. On growing up she left home, went into the jungles, organised a large army and resisted Chinese rule. Finally, when her army was crushed, she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure, not just a martyr who fought for the honour of the country. Nationalists popularised her image to inspire people to action.
Women as Warriors & their role in Peace
(i) Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers: they were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other. Whether young or old, women began to be depicted as selflessly working and fighting to save the country. As casualties in the war increased in the 1960s, women were urged to join the struggle in larger numbers.
(ii) Many women responded and joined the resistance movement. They helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground rooms and tunnels and fighting the enemy. Along the Ho Chi Minh trail young volunteers kept open 2,195 km of strategic roads and guarded 2,500 key points.
(iii) By the 1970s, as peace talks began to get under way and the end of the war seemed near, women were no longerrepresented as warriors. Now the image of women as workers begins to predomininate. They are shown working in agricultural cooperatives, factories and production units, rather than as fighters.
The end of the war
The prolongation of the war created strong reactions even within the US. It was clear that the US had failed to achieve its objectives: the Vietnamese resistance had not been crushed; the support of the Vietnamese people for US action had not been won. In the meantime, thousands of young US soldiers had lost their lives, and countless Vietnamese civilians had been killed. This was a war that has been called the first television war.
The widespread questioning of government policy strengthened moves to negotiate an end to the war. A peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with the US but fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF continued. The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.
Add to your Knowledge
(1) From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, the European Christians fought several religious wars, called the crusades against Muslim Arabs.
(2) In 1488 A.D. Bartholomew Dias of Portugal rounded the cape at the southern tip of Africa. His voyage through the rough seas near the cape raised hopes of sailing further east in the future. The cape was hence named Cape of Good Hope.
(3) In 1492, an Italian explorer named Christopher Columbus sailed west ward from Spain, hoping to reach Asia. He reached the islands of Carribean and thought he had reached India.
(4) In 1498 Vasco da gama sailed to the eastern coast of Africa and crossed Indian ocean. He reached Calicut in India in 1498.
(5) In 1519, Ferdinand and Magellan began the first voyage round the world. Magellan crossed the Atlantic to reach the South America. He then took nearly four months to cross the difficult strait that was named the strait of Magellan after him. The sea on the other side of the strait was very calm and hence Magellan named it the Pacific ocean. Magellan could not complete his voyage as he was killed in the Philippines.
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